# 11 - References

# References

Drug treatment of other psychiatric conditions
CHAPTER 9
References
1. Raman SR, et al. Trends in attention-­deficit hyperactivity disorder medication use: a retrospective observational study using population-­based 
databases. Lancet Psychiatry 2018; 5:­824–­835.
2. Piper BJ, et al. Trends in use of prescription stimulants in the United States and Territories, 2006 to 2016. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206100.
3. NHS Business Services Authority. Medicines used in mental ­health –­ ­England –­ 2015/16 to 2022/23. 2023; https://www.nhsbsa.nhs.uk/ 
statistical-­collections/medicines-­used-­mental-­health-­england/medicines-­used-­mental-­health-­england-­201516-­202223.
4. DIVA Foundation. DIVA-­5: Diagnostic Interview for ADHD in adults (DIVA). 2019 (last accessed December 2023); https://www.divacenter. 
eu/DIVA.aspx?id=461.
5. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. QbTest for the assessment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Medtech 
Innovation Briefing [MIB318]. 2023; https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/mib318.
6. Shaw M, et al. A systematic review and analysis of long-­term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of treatment and 
non-­treatment. BMC Med 2012; 10:99.
7. Boesen K, et al. Extended-­release methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 
2022; 2:CD012857.
8. Cândido RCF, et al. Immediate-­release methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database 
Syst Rev 2021; 1:CD013011.
9. Castells X, et  al. Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 
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10. Zhang L, et al. Risk of cardiovascular diseases associated with medications used in attention-­deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic 
review and meta-­analysis. JAMA Network Open 2022; 5:e2243597.
11. Zhang L, et al. Attention-­deficit/hyperactivity disorder medications and long-­term risk of cardiovascular diseases. JAMA Psychiatry 2024; 
81:­178–­187.
12. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management. NICE Guideline 
[NG87]. 2018 (last updated September 2019, last accessed December 2023); https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG87.
13. Viktorin A, et al. The risk of treatment-­emergent mania with methylphenidate in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2017; 174:­341–­348.
14. Radonjić NV, et al. Nonstimulant medications for attention-­deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults: systematic review and meta-­analysis. 
CNS Drugs 2023; 37:­381–­397.
Drug 
group
Drug
Advantages
Disadvantages
Non-­
stimulants
Atomoxetine (NE 
reuptake inhibitor)
Not Controlled ­Drugs –­ 
less restrictive prescribing 
regulations
 
Can help when stimulants 
are not indicated or not 
tolerated (e.g. tic 
disorders, active substance 
use disorders, others)
 
Might be considered by 
specialists in case of 
refractory ADHD or as an 
alternative to stimulants
Require weeks to attain full effect
 
Higher risk of interactions 
(metabolised by CYP2D6) and 
effect variability due to 
­genotype –­ might require dose 
adjustments26
 
Lower effect size than stimulants
Guanfacine 
(α2A-adrenoceptor 
agonist)
In many countries off-­label 
(unlicensed) for ADHD in adults
 
Off-­label prescribing may restrict 
opportunities to transfer to 
primary care.
Viloxazine (5HT-­ and 
NE-­modulating 
agent)
USA only
Bupropion 
(dopamine and NE 
reuptake inhibitor)
Limited evidence base
5HT, 5-­hydroxytryptamine; NE, norepinephrine.
Table 9.1  (Continued )

802
The Maudsley® Prescribing Guidelines in Psychiatry
CHAPTER 9
15. Bolea-­Alamañac B, et al. Evidence-­based guidelines for the pharmacological management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: update 
on recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol 2014; 28:­179–­203.
16. Cortese S, et al. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-­deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and 
adults: a systematic review and network meta-­analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2018; 5:­727–­738.
17. Heikkinen M, et al. Association of pharmacological treatments and hospitalization and death in individuals with amphetamine use disorders 
in a Swedish nationwide cohort of 13 965 patients. JAMA Psychiatry 2023; 80:­31–­39.
18. Cunill R, et al. Efficacy, safety and variability in pharmacotherapy for adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-­analysis and 
meta-­regression in over 9000 patients. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:­187–­197.
19. Crunelle CL, et al. International consensus statement on screening, diagnosis and treatment of substance use disorder patients with comorbid 
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Addict Res 2018; 24:­43–­51.
20. Yu S, et al. Guanfacine for the treatment of attention-­deficit hyperactivity disorder: an updated systematic review and meta-­analysis. J Child Adolesc 
Psychopharmacol 2023; 33:­40–­50.
21. Nasser A, et al. A phase III, randomized, double-­blind, placebo-­controlled trial assessing the efficacy and safety of viloxazine extended-­release 
capsules in adults with attention-­deficit/hyperactivity disorder. CNS Drugs 2022; 36:­897–­915.
22. Verbeeck W, et al. Bupropion for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 10:CD009504.
23. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Controlled drugs: safe use and management. NICE Guideline [NG46]. 2016 (last checked 
December 2023); https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng46/chapter/context.
24. Gallagher CT, et al. Doctor or drug dealer? International legal provisions for the legitimate handling of drugs of abuse. Drug Sci Policy Law 
2020; 6:2050324519900070.
25. General Medical Council. Controlled drugs and other medicines where additional safeguards are needed. 2021; https://www.gmc-­uk.org/ 
ethical-­guidance/ethical-­guidance-­for-­doctors/good-­practice-­in-­prescribing-­and-­managing-­medicines-­and-­devices/controlled- 
­drugs-­and-­other-­medicines-­where-­additional-­safeguards-­are-­needed.
26. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC). CPIC® guideline for atomoxetine based on CYP2D6 genotype. 2019 
(last checked December 2023); https://cpicpgx.org/guidelines/cpic-­guideline-­for-­atomoxetine-­based-­on-­cyp2d6-­genotype/.