# 08 - 7. Motivation needs and drives

# 7. Motivation: needs and drives

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7. Motivation: needs and drives 
 
Motivation refers to the process involved in initiation, direction and energisation of behaviour. It can have 
various dimensions including internal vs. external, innate vs. learned, conscious vs. unconscious and 
mechanistic vs. cognitive. 
Maslow identified deficiency needs called D motives and growth needs (or ‘being’) needs called B 
motives. He proposed a hierarchy of human needs with phylogenic and ontogenic evolution through the 
hierarchy. The needs become less biological as one ascends through the hierarchy. 
The higher needs come into focus 
only when the lower needs are 
satisfied at least to some extent. Once 
an individual has moved upwards to 
the next level, needs in the lower level 
will no longer be prioritized. If a 
lower set of needs is no longer being 
met, the individual will temporarily 
re-prioritize those needs by focusing 
attention on the unfulfilled needs, but 
will not permanently regress to the 
lower level. 
Some authors place aesthetic needs 
and cognitive needs (need to know & understand) in between esteem needs and actualisation. 
Transcendence can be placed above self-actualisation. The need for self-actualisations is "the desire to 
become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." 
According to Maslow, the following characters are seen in self-actualizing people: 
 
Spontaneous in their ideas and actions. 
 
Creative. 
 
Interested in solving problems. 
 
Appreciate life. 
 
Have a system of internalized independent morality. 
 
Able to view all things in an objective manner. 
Law of Effect related to learning theories can also be considered as a theory of motivation. A satisfying 
effect strengthens behaviour; a dissatisfying effect weakens behaviour. So behaviour is contingent on the 
consequences ( the basis of behaviourism) (Thorndike, 1911).

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Drive-Reduction Theory (Hull): According to this, the physiological aim of drive reduction is 
homeostasis- the tendency for organisms to keep physiological systems (e.g. temperature) at equilibrium. 
Any imbalance in homeostasis creates a need – a biological requirement for well-being. The brain responds 
to such needs by creating a psychological state called drive – a feeling of arousal that prompts action to 
reduce drive. According to Hull, primary drives stem from biological needs; secondary drives are 
psychological and learned from primary drives (e.g. self-esteem, power etc.) Similarly Murray (1938) 
divided needs into primary or vasculogenic needs that are physiological (e.g. air, water, food, sex) and 
secondary needs that are acquired or learned through experiences e.g. money etc. 
Yerkes-Dodson Law: An inverted U-shaped curve relates the level of arousal with the performance of an 
act. Optimum arousal (moderate) is required for best performance; too low or too high arousal proves to 
be a hindrance e.g. sexual performance. But it is demonstrated that the relationship is not as simple as 
proposed as task difficulty varies highly. So, difficult or intellectually demanding tasks may require a 
lower level of arousal (to facilitate concentration). But tasks demanding stamina or persistence may be 
performed better with higher levels of arousal (to increase motivation). Because of task differences, the 
shape of the curve can be highly variable. 
Curiosity is an intrinsic motivator – it is stimulated when something in our environment attracts our 
attention. There are two types of curiosity that can stimulate intrinsic motivation – sensory curiosity 
(change in tone of voice or level of contrast e.g. typing bold letters) or cognitive curiosity (learner believes 
it may be useful to modify existing cognitive structures e.g. improving knowledge in statistical models in 
order to improve understanding of baseball batting averages). 
The optimal discrepancy is the strongest curiosity when information appears different from what we 
know but is not so dissimilar as to be considered strange or irrelevant. 
Cognitive consistency theory focuses on the cognitive balance that is created when inconsistencies result 
in tension, which motivates our brains/body to respond. The theory suggests people see imbalances and 
correct them through the motivation to make things consistent. 
1. People expect consistency. 
2. Inconsistencies create a state of dissonance 
3. Dissonance drives us to restore consistency. 
 
Need for achievement (nAch) refers to the individual’s desire for significant accomplishment and 
mastering skills to a high standard. First used by Henry Murray, it is associated with a range of actions. 
Need for achievement motivates an individual to succeed in competition. People high in nAch are 
characterised by a tendency to seek challenges and a high degree of independence. nAch is a personality 
trait measured in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). 
Sources of high nAch include: 
1. Parents who encouraged independence in childhood 
2. Praise and rewards for success

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3. Association of achievement with positive feelings 
4. Association of achievement with one's own competence and effort, not luck 
5. A desire to be effective or challenged 
6. Intrapersonal strength 
7. Desirability 
8. Feasibility 
9. Goal Setting abilities