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Biopsy findings © SPMM Course metabolites of arachidonic acid, which are neurotoxic, and tumour necrosis factor, which is toxic for oligodendrocytes and can cause demyelination. Biopsy findings The following can be seen in the biopsy of an HIV infected brain t...

6. Schizophrenia

Gross changes

Histological changes © SPMM Course 6. Schizophrenia Gross changes  A decrease in brain weight, brain length and volume of the cerebral hemispheres enlargement of the lateral ventricles (especially temporal horns)  Reduced tissue volume in the thalamus, in te...

7. Mood disorders

8. Alcoholic brain damage

9. Autism © SPMM Course 7. Mood disorders  A strong association between mood disorder and the number and severity of focal signal hyperintensities on T2-weighted images has been established. These white matter hyperintensities (WMH) occur particularly in the ...

1. Lobar functions

A. Tests for frontal and parietal lobes © SPMM Course Lobar functions A. Tests for frontal and parietal lobes Frontal tests Comments Similarities Comparing two objects to test the ability of ‘categorisation’ and not a description of common ‘parts’. This is a ...

B. Lobar lesions

Frontal lobe lesions

Parietal lobe lesions © SPMM Course B. Lobar lesions Frontal lobe lesions Parietal lobe lesions Unilateral lesions Bilateral lesions Contralateral spastic hemiplegia Bilateral hemiplegia Slight elevation of mood, increased talkativeness, tendency to joke inapp...

Temporal lobe lesions © SPMM Course Temporal lobe lesions Unilateral lesions Bilateral lesions Homonymous upper quadrantanopia Auditory, visual, olfactory, and gustatory hallucinations Wernicke’s aphasia Dreamy states with uncinate seizures Varying degrees of ...

Occipital lobe lesions

C. Neuropsychological tests

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) © SPMM Course Occipital lobe lesions C. Neuropsychological tests The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)  Most widely used intelligence test in clinical practice.  The latest revision, the WAIS-III, is design...

Other cognitive instruments © SPMM Course Other cognitive instruments Raven’s progressive matrix is a test for IQ that is independent of education and cultural influences. It taps on general intelligence with visuospatial problem-solving tasks (performance IQ)...

2. Consciousness © SPMM Course 2. Consciousness  Consciousness is a state characterised by an awareness of self and environment and an ability to respond to environmental factors; it is made up of two components – arousal (wakefulness) and awareness (attentio...