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Red flags After taking a history and examining the patient it is important to consider ‘red flags’ ...

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION The patient should be undressed and posture should be eval uated in both fro...

Plain radiographs It is not appropriate to order spine radiographs for every patient presenting w...

Magnetic resonance imaging This allows detailed visualisation of the spinal cord, thecal sac, ep...

Neuromuscular scoliosis This may be due to neuropathic disorders, such as cerebral palsy , spinoc...

Non-spinal causes of back pain Pain may arise from the spine, but non-spinal causes of pain must...

PATIENT HISTORY The commonest reasons for referral to a spinal clinic include pain and spinal def...

Lumbar disc herniation Symptomatic lumbar disc herniation occurs during the lifetime in approxima...

METABOLIC BONE DISEASES AFFECTING THE SPINE Osteoporosis Patients with osteoporosis may present w...

METABOLIC BONE DISEASES AFFECTING THE SPINE Osteoporosis Patients with osteoporosis may present w...

Intradural tumours These are rare. They may be intramedullary (within the substance of the spinal...

Introduction No content extracted automatically.

Learning objectives To learn: The salient features relating to the history and examination • of t...

INFLAMMATORY SPONDYLOARTHROPATHY Rheumatoid arthritis Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMA...

INVESTIGATIONS The most common diagnostic imaging tests used to evaluate spinal disorders include...

Idiopathic scoliosis Idiopathic scoliosis accounts for 70% of presentations. It can be classified...

GLOBAL ISSUES IN SPINE SURGERY It is important that the information presented in this chapter, wh...

INFECTIONS OF THE SPINE Pyogenic infections Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis is primarily a lesio...

INFLAMMATORY SPONDYLOARTHROPATHY Rheumatoid arthritis Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMA...

Epidural abscess This condition is often a surgical emergency . The majority of cases occur with...