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Cancer ‘precision medicine’ This refers to the development of individualised cancer care plans, partly on the basis of molecular abnormalities in a tumour. Germline and somatic mutations may be taken into consideration, with the aim of tailoring treatments an...

Cytogenetics and fluorescence in situ hybridisation Conventional cytogenetics is the microscopic study of chromo somal changes in individual cells. Newer techniques, including FISH, array comparative genomic hybridisation, RT-PCR and next-generation sequencing...

Cytological assessment A cytological preparation consists of a sample of cells only . Assessment of architecture is not usually possible because intact tissue is absent or sparse ( Figures 11.9 and 11.22 ) . Therefore, Sodium diphenylbisazobisnaphthylamine ...

Cytology specimen Samples for cytology can be smeared immediately onto glass slides, fixed (usually in alcohol) or air dried and stained imme diately or later. The process usually produces several slides, some of which are stained with a Papanicolaou (Pap) sta...

Cytology There are various approaches to the procurement of a cytol ogy sample. Some samples are easy to obtain, e.g. urine and sputum, whereas others require more intervention. A conven tional cervical smear is obtained by sampling the cervical trans formati...

DIAGNOSTIC MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY The broad heading of diagnostic molecular pathology refers to multiple tests that assess molecules (proteins, ribonucleic ), acid [RNA] and deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA]) in tissue. The information that they provide may be usefu...

DIGITAL PATHOLOGY AND ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE The term ‘digital pathology’ usually refers to the examination of digitised slides on a workstation (computer) or another device. Uses include education, quality assurance, surveys, research and expert consults. Wit...

Deeper levels and extra blocks The pathologist may request ‘deeper levels’, whereby the BMS cuts further into the para ffi n block to obtain further sections that may provide more information. For example, deeper levels of an atypical but non-invasive epithelia...

Detection of clinically relevant abnormalities in genes There are two broadly related areas of clinical practice that rely on molecular analysis. First, analysis of tumour DNA may improve diagnostic precision, enhance treatment plans and help predict clinica...

Detection of clinically relevant abnormalities in genes There are two broadly related areas of clinical practice that rely on molecular analysis. First, analysis of tumour DNA may improve diagnostic precision, enhance treatment plans and help predict clinica...

Detection of clinically relevant abnormalities in genes There are two broadly related areas of clinical practice that rely on molecular analysis. First, analysis of tumour DNA may improve diagnostic precision, enhance treatment plans and help predict clinica...

Electron microscopy Electron microscopy allows visualisation of tissue at very high magnification, e.g. × 1000 to × 500 /uni00A0 000. It may help to decide the lineage of a non-neoplastic or neoplastic cell and may help to determine the nature of abnormal depo...

FURTHER READING Brierley JD, Gospodarowicz MK, Wittekind C. TNM classification of malignant tumours , 8th edn. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017. Cardesa A, Zidar N, Alos L et al . The Kaiser’s cancer revisited: was Virchow totally wrong? Virchows Arch 2011; 458(6)...