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FURTHER WORK Pathologists request further stains or other tests on a signif - icant minority of histology specimens. This includes special stains, immunohistochemistry , in situ hybridisation and various molecular pathology techniques. Electron microscopy may...

Flow cytometry Flow cytometry is a laser-based or impedance-based technique used for cell counting, cell sorting, biomarker detection and protein engineering. Cells are suspended in a stream of fluid and passed by an electronic detection apparatus. It is usefu...

Fresh tissue The most common indication for submission of a fresh tissue sample (i.e. without the usual formalin or any other fixative) is rapid frozen section diagnosis, usually done intraoperatively . Other indications are microbiological assessment, electro...

Genomic changes in tumours In normal circumstances, there is precise control of the divi - sion and proliferation of human cells. For example, various growth factors influence division by binding to specific cell surface tyrosine kinase receptors, resulting in...

HER2 gene amplification HER2 status influences the selection of therapy for breast cancer and metastatic gastric adenocarcinoma. Tumours with HER2 amplification may be treated with the monoclonal antibodies trastuzumab or pertuzumab, often in combination with ot...

Histological assessment In a histological preparation, the microscopic structure of the tissue remains intact, allowing direct visualisation of tissue architecture. Accordingly , the pathologist can see not only the characteristics of the cells that form the...

Histological types of malignancy A malignant tumour showing features of epithelial di ff erentia - tion, and typically arising in an epithelial layer, is a carcinoma. Other important types of malignancy include malignant mela - noma (melanocytes) ( Figure 11....

Histology specimen On arrival in the pathology laboratory , specimens receive a unique identification number, usually with a barcode. They proceed to macroscopic assessment and sampling (colloquially - known as ‘cut up’). The largest specimens require initial o...

Histology Specimens for histology are classified as biopsies and resec - tions, although strictly speaking all samples are biopsies. The reasons for taking small biopsies include diagnosis, further assessment and prognostic prediction. Types of small biopsy in...