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Uptake of robotic surgery Many surgical specialties have embraced robot-assisted techniques, including general surgery , cardiothoracic surgery , urology , orthopaedics, ear, nose and throat surgery , gynaecol ogy and paediatric surgery . Specialties that use ...

Urinary catheter The requirement for a urinary catheter depends on the opera - tion. In shorter (<4 hours) minimal access procedures a urinary catheter is not usually required. If a urinary catheter has been placed in the bladder during an operation with like...

surgery Arthroscopy was one of the earliest applications of endoscopic techniques, first being applied in the knee as early as the 1930s. - In the 1950s Watanabe developed arthroscopic techniques that - have evolved such that shoulder, wrist, elbow and hip ar...

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are very grateful to the following contributors for assistance with previous versions of the chapter and for providing images: Professor Mike Shea ff , London, UK; Dr Manuel Rodriguez-Justo, London, UK. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors...

ASSESSMENT Light microscopy Most tissue assessment depends on conventional light micros - copy . Microscopes have several lenses with various powers of magnification, typically ranging from × 20 to × 400 or more. A low-power lens allows scanning of a sample an...

AUTOPSY In the past, autopsies (postmortems) allowed physicians and scientists to improve their knowledge of the human body and various diseases. The main reason for an autopsy is to confirm the cause of death, but autopsies remain very useful for medical educ...

BRAF V600E mutation for detecting antigens in haematological neoplasms, usually in - blood samples, and for determining ploidy , i.e. the number of sets of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell. Although tradi - tional flow cytometry is of limited value for ...

Basic methods in diagnostic molecular pathology In situ hybridisation H. In situ hybridisation (ISH) uses a labelled oligonucleotide probe - that targets a specific sequence of RNA or DNA. It allows visu - alisation of the presence or absence and location of ...

Cancer ‘precision medicine’ This refers to the development of individualised cancer care plans, partly on the basis of molecular abnormalities in a tumour. Germline and somatic mutations may be taken into consideration, with the aim of tailoring treatments an...

Cytogenetics and fluorescence in situ hybridisation Conventional cytogenetics is the microscopic study of chromo somal changes in individual cells. Newer techniques, including FISH, array comparative genomic hybridisation, RT-PCR and next-generation sequencing...

Cytological assessment A cytological preparation consists of a sample of cells only . Assessment of architecture is not usually possible because intact tissue is absent or sparse ( Figures 11.9 and 11.22 ) . Therefore, Sodium diphenylbisazobisnaphthylamine ...

Cytology specimen Samples for cytology can be smeared immediately onto glass slides, fixed (usually in alcohol) or air dried and stained imme diately or later. The process usually produces several slides, some of which are stained with a Papanicolaou (Pap) sta...

Cytology There are various approaches to the procurement of a cytol ogy sample. Some samples are easy to obtain, e.g. urine and sputum, whereas others require more intervention. A conven tional cervical smear is obtained by sampling the cervical trans formati...

DIAGNOSTIC MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY The broad heading of diagnostic molecular pathology refers to multiple tests that assess molecules (proteins, ribonucleic ), acid [RNA] and deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA]) in tissue. The information that they provide may be usefu...

DIGITAL PATHOLOGY AND ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE The term ‘digital pathology’ usually refers to the examination of digitised slides on a workstation (computer) or another device. Uses include education, quality assurance, surveys, research and expert consults. Wit...

Deeper levels and extra blocks The pathologist may request ‘deeper levels’, whereby the BMS cuts further into the para ffi n block to obtain further sections that may provide more information. For example, deeper levels of an atypical but non-invasive epithelia...

Detection of clinically relevant abnormalities in genes There are two broadly related areas of clinical practice that rely on molecular analysis. First, analysis of tumour DNA may improve diagnostic precision, enhance treatment plans and help predict clinica...

Detection of clinically relevant abnormalities in genes There are two broadly related areas of clinical practice that rely on molecular analysis. First, analysis of tumour DNA may improve diagnostic precision, enhance treatment plans and help predict clinica...