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16 - References

References

880 The Maudsley® Prescribing Guidelines in Psychiatry CHAPTER 11 References

  1. Ferner RE. Post-­mortem clinical pharmacology. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2008; 66:430–443.
  2. Flanagan RJ, et al. Analytical toxicology: guidelines for sample collection postmortem. Toxicol Rev 2005; 24:63–71.
  3. Kennedy MC. Post-­mortem drug concentrations. Intern Med J 2010; 40:183–187.
  4. Mantinieks D, et al. Postmortem drug redistribution: a compilation of postmortem/antemortem drug concentration ratios. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:368–377.
  5. Brockbals L, et al. Time-­ and site-­dependent postmortem redistribution of antidepressants and neuroleptics in blood and alternative matrices. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:356–367.
  6. Brockbals L, et al. Postmortem metabolomics: strategies to assess time-­dependent postmortem changes of diazepam, nordiazepam, morphine, codeine, mirtazapine and citalopram. Metabolites 2021; 11:643.
  7. Maskell PD. Just say no to postmortem drug dose calculations. J Forensic Sci 2021; 66:1862–1870.
  8. Ketola RA, et al. Drug concentrations in post-­mortem specimens. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1338–1357.
  9. Ketola RA, et al. Summary statistics for drug concentrations in post-­mortem femoral blood representing all causes of death. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1326–1337.
  10. Flanagan RJ. Poisoning: fact or fiction? Med Leg J 2012; 80:127–148.
  11. Flanagan RJ, et al. Effect of post-­mortem changes on peripheral and central whole blood and tissue clozapine and norclozapine concentrations in the domestic pig (Sus scrofa). Forensic Sci Int 2003; 132:9–17.
  12. Flanagan RJ, et al. Suspected clozapine poisoning in the UK/Eire, 1992–2003. Forensic Sci Int 2005; 155:91–99.
  13. Saar E, et al. The time-­dependant post-­mortem redistribution of antipsychotic drugs. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 222:223–227.
  14. Caplehorn JR, et al. Methadone dose and post-­mortem blood concentration. Drug Alcohol Rev 2002; 21:329–333.
  15. Lewis RJ, et al. Paroxetine in postmortem fluids and tissues from nine aviation accident victims. J Anal Toxicol 2015; 39:637–641.
  16. Launiainen T, et al. Drug concentrations in post-­mortem femoral blood compared with therapeutic concentrations in plasma. Drug Test Anal 2014; 6:308–316.
  17. Soderberg C, et al. Reference values of lithium in postmortem femoral blood. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 277:207–214.
  18. Linnet K, et al. Postmortem femoral blood concentrations of risperidone. J Anal Toxicol 2014; 38:57–60.
  19. Skov L, et al. Postmortem femoral blood reference concentrations of aripiprazole, chlorprothixene, and quetiapine. J Anal Toxicol 2015; 39:41–44.
  20. Rodda KE, et al. The redistribution of selected psychiatric drugs in post-­mortem cases. Forensic Sci Int 2006; 164:235–239.
  21. Scanlon KA, et al. Comprehensive duloxetine analysis in a fatal overdose. J Anal Toxicol 2016; 40:167–170.
  22. Breivik H, et al. Post mortem tissue distribution of quetiapine in forensic autopsies. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 315:110413.
  23. Butzbach DM, et al. Bacterial degradation of risperidone and paliperidone in decomposing blood. J Forensic Sci 2013; 58:90–100.
  24. Martinez-­Ramirez JA, et al. Search for fungi-­specific metabolites of four model drugs in postmortem blood as potential indicators of postmortem fungal metabolism. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 262:173–178.
  25. Martinez-­Ramirez JA, et al. Studies on drug metabolism by fungi colonizing decomposing human cadavers. Part II: biotransformation of five model drugs by fungi isolated from post-­mortem material. Drug Test Anal 2015; 7:265–279. Table 11.3  Factors affecting postmortem blood concentrations. Factor Examples Consequences Redistribution of drug from tissues to blood compartment Most drugs with large volume of distribution, e.g. clozapine,11,12 olanzapine,13 methadone,14 SSRIs,15 TCAs, mirtazapine,16 lithium17 May not occur to any significant effect with risperidone,4,18 aripiprazole19 or quetiapine4,19 Postmortem levels up to 10× higher than in-­life levels, sometimes higher still9 Uneven distribution of drugs in the blood compartment and in organs (i.e. site of blood collection affects concentration) Most drugs,8,20 e.g. clozapine, TCAs, SSRIs, duloxetine,21 benzodiazepines, quetiapine22 Concentrations may vary several-­fold according to site of collection at postmortem, e.g. femoral blood vs heart blood Decay of drugs in postmortem tissue (usually by bacterial degradation) Not widely studied but known to occur with olanzapine, risperidone23 and some benzodiazepines. Fungi can metabolise amitriptyline, mirtazapine and zolpidem.24,25 Postmortem levels may be lower than in-­life levels Postmortem metabolism/ degradation Cocaine metabolised/degraded postmortem. Many other drugs are unstable in postmortem samples. Yeasts may produce ethanol following trauma.3 Postmortem levels may be lower (cocaine) or higher (alcohol) than in-­life levels TCAs, tricyclic antidepressants.

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